Udyavara — A Forgotten Legacy
Four kilometers to the south of Udupi, the highway to Mangalore branches off to a village called Udyavara. The setting could be easily mistaken for any other coastal village in Tulunad region — Bhuta shrines and sacred Naga groves dotting the landscape, a river meandering her way to the sea and a good measure of prosperity among the people. But the similarity ends there as Udyavara’s temples, inscriptions and even its river speaks of a terrific past, giving it a distinct character.
Archeological excavations in Udyavara during the 1960s yielded extensive polished wares and artefacts from the pre-historic age.[1] By the 3rd-4th Century CE, it had become a bustling port town with trade contacts extending up till the Mediterranean region.[2] At the turn of the 7th century CE, Udyavara’s importance had vastly increased and it became a great political and commercial center of the region.[3] Situated on the edge of Papanashini river and complete with fortified ramparts, gateways and a moat, the town of Udyavara was itself made of two parts consisting of a well-defined citadel and a lower town.[4] Today, despite its relatively low-key status, Udyavara continues to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in Karnataka.
Overlooking Udyavara is a small granite hillock called Shambhu Kallu. It is associated with great sanctity and houses the twin temples dedicated to Shiva — the Shambhu Shaileshwara and Prasanna Someshwara. Dating back to at least 7th century, the temple of Shambhu Shaileshwara is arguably the oldest “living” temple in the region.[5] The Kalamukha sect, which once had great sway in the region, managed these temples and their chiefs officiated as priests.[6] The Shambhu Shaileshwara was the family deity of the Alupas, the ruling dynasty of the region. The Alupas referred to the deity as “Shambhu Kallu Bhattaraka” and had made several donations and grants to these twin temples.[7]
At the foot of the hillock lies another temple complex dedicated to Sapta Matrikas and Veerabhadra. This 9th Century temple [8] has splendid stuccos of Mother Goddesses. At present, only four of the seven Goddesses can be seen.
The Grabha Griha has Brahmani, Maheshvari and Vaishnavi along with a later day addition of Veerabhadra.
Chamunda is the fourth of the Sapta Matrikas and is housed in a separate shrine. She is currently worshipped as Maha Kali. The priests for Chamunda hail from the musician community. Collectively this temple complex is now known as Veerabhadra-Durga Parameshwari temple.
The Mahatobhara Siddhi Vinayaka temple in the heart of Udyavara is a very popular temple. During its renovation, several idols of great antiquity were recovered, all of which have now be shifted to the Rashtrakavi Govinda Pai Museum in MGM College premises, Udupi.
The Brahmalingeshwara and Mangodu Subrahmanya temples are the other two temples of historical importance.
All these temples have undergone several renovations and their antiquity is not evident but for a dozen of inscriptions and epitaphs. It is these rich epigraphical materials that have preserved the stories of Udyavara, which otherwise are almost forgotten…
The Story of Udyavara through inscriptions:
Originally known as Udayapura or Udayapura Nagara, it came into prominence with the rise of Alupas, a dynasty that ruled atleast from 5th to 14th Century CE.[9] The Alupas had three major political centers in the coastal region — Mangaluru, Udyavara, and Barkur. Humcha was their political base in the Malnad region.[10] Depending on the political dynamics of the time, the Alupas would shift their base. Udyavara was one of their earliest centers and it became their capital during the 8th-10th Century after which they shifted to Barkur.[11]
The Udyavara Civil War
The Alupas had a close relationship with the Chalukyas of Badami. Rallying behind the Chalukyas for their wars and matrimonial alliances between the two had strengthened their bond.[12] This relationship greatly benefitted the Alupas as the Chalukyas, wanting to fill the void in the erstwhile Banavasi Kadamba domain, bestowed Alupas with authority over entire coastal Karnataka and large parts of Malnad.[13] After the Badami Chalukyas faded away, the Rashtrakutas rose to prominence and this was the time when trouble began to brew. Govinda III, the architect of the mighty Rashtrakuta empire, began a series of exploits to put down the recalcitrant subordinates who were now exercising independence.[14] At around the same time, the Alupa family had divided their territory between two brothers. Chitravahana II ruled from Humcha in modern-day Shimoga district and his brother Ranasagara from Udyavara. The Alupas, who till then had maintained some degree of autonomy, too faced Govinda’s wrath. The face-off between the Rashtrakuta forces and the Alupas headed by Chitravahana II happened at Mavali near Shikaripura.[15] A fierce battle ensued and ended with a Rashtrakuta victory. Having lost most of his territories, Chitravahana II, now bereft of a kingdom, marched down the Ghats to Udyavara, to stake a claim on the remaining Alupa territory. Ranasagara was unwilling to yield to his brother’s demand.[16] This led to a series of wars within the Alupa family spanning for two generations, important events of which were chronicled in the inscriptions found in Shambhu Kallu.
The fights between Chitravahana II and Ranasagara were not restricted to Udyavara alone. A series of conflicts occurred all over Tulunad with local chiefs taking sides and engaging in factional wars.[17] Chitravahana II emerged victorious in the feud and wrested Udyavara. The ousted brother, Ranasagara continued to make efforts to regain Udyavara and finally managed to come back and defeat Chitravahana II. After Chitravahana’ s death, his son Shwetavahana renewed the fight against his uncle Ranasagara. Shwetavahana’s repeated attempts bore results as he finally succeeded in storming Udyavara, bringing an end the first generational fight between the brothers.[18]
The new king Shwetavahana reigned for over a decade. Meanwhile Ranasagara’ s son, Prithvisagara, having crowned himself the king outside Udyavara, started making attempts to dethrone his cousin.[19] Strangely enough, the later inscriptions of Udyavara make way to eulogize Prithvisagara and Shwetavahana’ s name goes completely missing. This made historians to speculate that Shwetavahana was perhaps killed by Prithvisagara but there was no conclusive evidence available.[20] However, it was not until the year 2015 when a chance discovery solved the mystery. Just a kilometer to the west of Shambhu Kallu, lies the 9th century temple called Mangodu Subrahmanya. Upon noticing a neglected stone column with Old Kannada letters, the managing trustee of the temple requested a professor from a local college to decipher it. The inscription heaped praise on a soldier named Pala Achiya, a confidant of Prithvisagara. It revealed that Pala Achiya was killed by the guards of Shwetavahana but not before successfully piercing through the enemy’s defenses and stabbing Shwetavahana to death![21] Prithvisagara and his descendants became the rulers of the Alupa dynasty from then on.
The Chola Invasion and Bankideva Alupendra’s emphatic victory
Nearly a century of peace prevailed after the civil war as the Udyavara inscriptions make no reference to any battles or feuds. However, the Alupas faced the most challenging times of their existence yet when the Cholas under the illustrious Raja Raja Chola’s son Rajendra I invaded coastal Karnataka around the year 1018 C.E.[22] Marching northwards from Kerala, the Rajendra Chola overran most of the Alupa territory reaching up till the town of Bhatkal in modern-day Uttara Kannada district.[23] Bankideva Alupendra, the then king, having lost all his territories, started regrouping his men and then stitched an alliance of smaller chiefs, many hailing from the hill tracts of Malnad. The Santaras, a Jain family now ruling the erstwhile Alupa territory of Humcha were his closest aides. With newfound allies, Bankideva launched counter-attack on the Cholas and succeeded in ousting them. He managed to completely stamp his authority by the year 1020 CE.[24] [25] A commemorative inscription in Old Kannada found in the other historic town of Barkur mentions: -
“Tulu Vishayadol Nijajneyam nilisi…. Maari mele vanda cholana dandam bem-kond-arey-atti….”[26]
Loosely meaning — “Bankideva established his true rule in Tulu region…having chased out the belligerent Cholas…”
The Chola empire was at its zenith and the momentum provided by Raja Raja Chola was used to the hilt by his son Rajendra I. Chances of Chola shifting their focus on other regions may have something to do with the Chola defeat[27] but it is also a reflection of the Alupa’s military administration and strategies. The inscriptions and hero-stones of Udyavara offer good insights. They reveal that a compensation system called “Parihara” was in place to provide grants and benefits to the family of the deceased soldiers.[28] Epitaphs not only glorify the martyrs but also give an indication of abilities of breaking the enemy flanks and formations. Some of the Alupa inscriptions praise soldiers and shower them with impressive epithets like “Rana Muppa” (a veteran of wars)[29], “Kalaga Kesari”[30] (lion in the battle) and “Chakravyuha Odevan”[31] (the one who broke the battle formations), clearly indicating the special standing of the soldiers. Earlier, even the Rashtrakuta did not have it easy against the Alupas as can be inferred from Govinda’s Mavali inscription. It acknowledges that the Alupas were a formidable force and that Chitravahana II’s cavalry had managed to break the right flank of the Rashtrakuta forces causing heavy losses.[32]
Interestingly, even the pillars used for the inscriptions are without any parallels as they are a rare occurrence in nature. These pillars, called Columnar Jointing in geological terms, are formed by the separation of the volcanic rocks at the joints or fractures during the cooling process, creating polygonal structures naturally. Such a phenomenon had occurred in the island of Thonse Par, off the coast of Udyavara. The Alupas seemed to have taken a special liking for these unique pillar stones, for barring a couple of exceptions, all inscriptions of Udyavara were written on these stones quarried from the island. Now known as St. Mary’s island, Thonse Par itself has a bit of history. Vasco Da Gama halted here briefly, planted a Cross and called the island El Padrón de Santa Maria. El Padrón meaning “The Pattern” in Portuguese, most likely alludes to the polygonal rock patterns of the island.[33]
The last of the Udyavara group of inscriptions occurs in 1118 following which the town fell silent. Bankideva’s great grandson Bhujabala Kavi Alupendra made a decisive move. He shifted his capital permanently to the celebrated town of Barkur, which had been growing in importance.[34] Unlike the Udyavara’ s inscriptions which speak more about wars, feuds and memorials for fallen soldiers, Barkur’s inscriptions (there are nearly a hundred of them) are more about trade settlements, grants and donations. Barkur also gave birth to the matriarchal law and housed the tutelary deities of several castes and communities of Tuluva society and came to be known, quite deservingly, as “Tulunada Rajadhani”.
Udyavara, meanwhile was relegated to history merely as a “once-been” capital of the Alupas. Its residents were a pampered lot.[35] Large portions of marine and agricultural revenues were diverted for upkeeping of the city. A separate post of secretary called Dharma Karanika was in place to oversee the religious affairs and maintenance of temples.[36] Gradually all the systems declined. Nothing worthwhile happened until the early 20th century when a chance discovery of papyrus manuscripts at a ruined Greek settlement called Oxyrhynchus, situated in Egypt’s Nile Valley, created a buzz surrounding the topic of Udyavara.
Among the rich haul of manuscripts was a tattered script of a comical, burlesque play or an operetta, tentatively titled “The Charition Mime” by the discoverers. Set in mid-2nd century and written in Greek language, the plot was about the escape of a Greek maiden named Charition who had been shipwrecked near a coastal city in India, situated on the banks of a river called Psolichus. The king is unwilling to let her go and Charition takes up residence at a temple of the Moon Goddess. Her brother along with a buffoon and a Greek search party arrive at the scene and they hatch a plan to free Charition and escape. They entice the king and his nobles by offering strong wine. The Indian party, unaccustomed to such a strong drink lose all senses. Using the opportunity, Charition and her accomplices manage to escape to Psolichus, where their boat is anchored. At the time of fleeing, Charition’s prays to the Moon Goddess and seeks her blessings.[37] [38] To add a dash of originality, for certain scenes where the Greek and the Indian characters interact, an Indian language was used. However, the full extent of the script was never recovered, and speculations were rife on the possible “barbarian language” used and location where the plot was possibly set.
Eugene Hultzch, a German Indologist, who had famously deciphered the Ashoka inscriptions, was the first to propose that the strange language in Greek play was Kannada.[39] Incidentally, Hultzch had also edited the Udyavara inscriptions and wasn’t unfamiliar with it but he did not go as forth as to claim that the location of the play was Udyavara. RS Shastri of the Arthashastra discovery fame was the first to decipher the Kannada lines and provide a suitable context within the strictures laid down by the Oxford University, under whose custody the manuscripts remain. And since then, many historians have provided their versions of the transliterated lines, both in Kannada and Tulu. However, it was Rashtrakavi M Govinda Pai who first proposed that the location in question was none other than Udyavara. Apart from the Kannada lines indicating its possible geographical location within Karnataka, there were many parallels between Udyavara and the city in the plot. An ancient royal city on the banks of a river, not too far away from the sea, perfectly fit Udyavara’s scene. One of the twin Shiva temples of Shambhu Kallu is called Someshwara and Whose association with moon needs no introduction. The Alupa kings sometimes even called themselves “Soma Kula Tilaka” or “Soma Vamshodbhava”[40] [41]. It was possible that the playwrights of Charition may have used Someshwara or the “Lord with the Moon” as the Moon Goddess in the play. This suited the Greek sensibilities who identified moon with the feminine divinity Selene. The similarities didn’t end there. Even in the transliterated dialogues of the King, his exaltations seem to strikingly close to Umeshwara/Someshwara. Bhaskar Anand Saletore, another great historian too agreed that the setting was on the banks of Papanashini river and the divinity invoked by Charitone was possibly a reference to Shiva in an altered form. He further opined that the river Psolichus was undoubtedly the Greek rendition of “Shivaluka” or “Shivoluka”, the other name of Papanashini in the ancient times, which she had attained as a result of her association with the sacred village of Shivalli in Udyavara’s neighbourhood.[42] But he differed with Govinda Pai on one critical aspect. Saletore believed that the exact location was not Udyavara but the harbour of Malpe, few kilometers downstream the Papanashini river. Saletore had a strong case. The king in the play is addressed as “Malpinaik” (Malpe Nayaka) and Malpe too has a renowned temple called Vadabhandeshwara. Furthermore, Saletore identified the forest mentioned in the play with the region stretching upto Kodavoor beyond Malpe since it was known as Kaana in the olden days. There is very little doubt in the King being referred to as Malpe Nayaka. But did Malpe indeed have a Nayaka? Or was the chief who simply controlled Malpe harbour given that epithet? Until the Alupas shifted to Barkur where they developed a sophisticated and a more participatory form of urban governance, the towns were under the administration of a personnel named Nayaka. So far, all the old inscriptions that have been discovered talk only about the Nayaka for Udyavara[43] or Kolalagiri, another ruined but an interior settlement on the banks of Kalyanpur river. Even Vadabhandeshwara was originally a Subrahmanya temple and its antiquity dating back only to 13th century. The shrine for Shiva is an auxiliary to the main temple.[44] In contrast, the Shiva temples of Shambhukallu are among the oldest not just in Tulunad region but in the whole of coastal Karnataka. While the possibility of Someshwara being the inspiration behind the “Moon Goddess” seems likely, the 9th century Sapta Matrika temple itself being preceded by temple dedicated to a single Mother Goddess cannot be ruled out. Interestingly, the Kshetra Mahatmya of the Shambhu Kallu reveals that the area beyond the Sapta Matrika temple was covered with forest called Saraswata Vana[45], much like in the Charition Mime! While the harbour was at Malpe, the trade transactions seemed to have happened upstream at Udyavara. “Jaladulam, Sthaladulam Sunkam.…”[46], so goes an inscription of Udayavara describing the toll collection from marine and land trade. The escapade of Charition with her accomplices to the river after the party at the king’s residence indicates that the palace was close to the river. The erstwhile Alupa fort and palace at Bolargudde stood at an earshot from the river. So, was the location in the play supposedly based on Udyavara or was it Malpe? We may never know as the lines of Chariton Mime end abruptly. Nothing further was discovered and perhaps will never be. As Saletore himself said, any interpretation of the play can only be provisional. Udyavara’s tryst with fame once again ended abruptly.
A few selected lines from the possible Kannada passages in the play rendered by different characters, along with Saletore and Pandit KR Bhat’s reconstruction in the italics, is given below.[47]
King: Brathis! {Kan: Bhartisu — Fill aplenty}
All: Kottos. {Kan: Kodu Tusu — Pour a bit more}
B: May you be kicked by Kottos.
King: Zopit! {Kan: Oppit — Agreed}
H: Tougoummi Nekelekethro {Kan: Tago omme. Nigel eke edro — Take once more. Why did you get up?}
G: Eitou belle trachoupterugoumi {Kan: Eytu belle dracca (Draksha) vappa tira gommi — How pure (white) is the wine! Finish it once for all}
H: Trachountermana {Kan: Dracca (Draksha) undare maana — It is honour to partake wine}
K: Ouamesare Sumpsaradara ei ia da.. {Kan: O Umeshwara! Samsarada dara erya ada — Oh Umeshwara, is the door of material world?)
B: Martha Marithouma edmaimai maitho thamouna martha marithouma… {Kan: mardam aridevu mayada meyime, mayadatta mouna aridevamma. (We have found out the medicine! Wherever the magic spreads, silence is produced!}
King: Malpinaik ouroukoukoub(n?)i karako..ra. {Kan: Malpe Nayakara Koni Karako — Take Malpe Nayaka (king referring to himself) to his room}
All: Aba oun! {Kan: Abba Avane! — Exclamation}
All: Orkis {Kan: Oragisu — Make him (the king) lie down}
Today, Udayavara plays a second fiddle to a religious and spiritual center in its neighborhood, which it had once carefully nurtured. A string of Agraharas, collectively known as Shivalli, outgrew Udyavara and went on to become what is now called Udupi. Nature too played a role in obscuring Udyavara’s heritage. The copious rains of India’s south west coast usher prosperity but at the same time extract a price. They forcefully wash away every effort of a man who intends to build something to last. Udyavara barely managed to scrape through to showcase what it has, a bunch of unique inscriptions. But for the archeological excavations in the 1960s, nothing of the ancient city would have been known. Today, its residents, unmindful of the legacy, carry on with their lives without the slightest hint of melancholy. The only witnesses to its legacy are the Gods in the temples, where They continue to command devotion from the people, like in the bygone era.
— — — —
References:
I. Recent Advances in Marine Archeology by SR Rao — [1] (Pg. 69), [4] (Pg. 69)
II. Udupi District Gazetteer — [2] (Pg.1002)
III. Antiquities of South Kanara by P. Gururaja Bhatt — [3] (Pg. 21), [5] (Pg. 21), [6] (Pg. VII), [8] (Plate CLI, CLII), [10] (Pg. III), [11] (Pg. 21), [44] (Pg. CLVII)
IV. Studies in Tuluva History and Culture by P. Gururaja Bhatt — [7] (Pg. XXIV), [9] (Pg.18)
V. A History of South Kanara by K.V. Ramesh — [12] (Pg. 47), [13] (Pg. 52), [14], [15] (Pg. 70–72), [16], [17], [18], [20] (Pg. 75–83), [19] (Pg. 82), [22], [27] (Pg. 103), [24] (Pg. 102, 103), [28] (Pg. 270), [29] (Pg. 92), [32] (Pg. 246), [40] (Pg. 110), [46] (Pg. 247)
VII. Uttara Kannada District Gazetteer — [23] (Pg. 899)
VIII. Ancient Karnataka — History of Tuluva by B.A. Saletore — [25] (Pg. 211–213), [34] (Pg. 109), [35] (Pg. 176), [36] (Pg. 167), [39] (Pg. 585), [42] (Pg. 590), [43] (Pg. 176), [ 47] (Pg. 595–597)
IX. South India Inscriptions Vol., VII, №327 [26]
X. Epigraphia Indica Vol IX — 30], [41] (Pg.22), [31] (Pg.18)
XI. Dakshina Kannada District Gazetteer — [33] (Pg. 52, 760)
XII. The Oxyrhychus Papyri Part III by Grenfell & Hunt — [37] (Pg.41–54)
XIII. Adventures of Iphigenia in Tauris — Onassis Series in Hellenic Culture — [38] (Pg. 117–132)
XIV. Sri Shambhu Shaileshwara Kshetra Mahatmya (Compiled by Ramnath Acharya and UV Acharya) [45]
